Cultural variations in perceptions and reactions to social norm transgressions: a comparative study.

Introduction: Humans are similar but behave differently, and one main reason is the culture in which they are born and raised. The purpose of this research is to examine how the perception and reaction to those who transgress social norms may vary based on the individualism/collectivism of their culture. Methods: A study (N = 398) conducted in the United Kingdom, Spain, and China showed differences in the perception and reaction to incivilities based on individualism/collectivism. Results: People from highly collective countries (China) perceive uncivil transgressors as immoral and enact more social control over them than people from highly individualistic countries (U.K.). They also experience more discomfort when facing uncivil transgressors, and this discomfort mediates the increasing immorality perceived on the agents of incivilities in contrast with people from less collective countries. Discussion: Our findings provide insights into how cultural factors shape individuals' perceptions of social norm violations and emphasize the importance of considering cultural differences when addressing incivility.

Gender inequality in incivility: Everyone should be polite, but it is fine for some of us to be impolite.

Civility is formed by social norms that guide our behavior and allow us to interact appropriately with others. These norms affect everyone and are learned through the socialization process. However, in the same process, people also learn gender norms that dictate how men and women should behave, leading to gender stereotypes and differentiated behavioral characteristics. The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between gender and civility, and how we react to those who behave uncivilly given their gender. The results of Study 1 (N = 153) showed that even in a fictional and gender-neutral society, uncivil behaviors were associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics, and those who behaved uncivilly were dehumanized. In Study 2 (N = 144), gender differences were observed in incivility. Women were harsher when facing uncivil transgressors than men, especially if the transgressor was another woman. Our findings support the notion that gender norms are applied to civility, leading those supposedly equal social norms to unequal perceptions and evaluations.

Dehumanization as a Response to Uncivil and Immoral Behaviors.

Theoretical approaches to dehumanization consider civility to be an attribute of human uniqueness (HU). However, studies that explore the links between civility and humanness are scarce. More precisely, the present research tests whether there is a consistent relationship between civility and HU. Method and results: The first study (N = 192; Mage = 19.91; SD = 2.70; 69% women) shows that individuals infer more HU traits in the agents of civil behaviors compared to agents of other positive behaviors that are not related to civility. The second study (N = 328; Mage = 19.69; SD = 3.65; 77% women) reveals that uncivil and immoral behaviors displayed a similar pattern of inference of HU traits; however, moral behaviors were more associated with human nature than civil behaviors. Conclusions: Overall, results confirmed that civil behaviors facilitate the inference of humanness, specifically of HU traits, and that civil and moral behaviors are not equivalent in terms of the human inferences to which they lead.

Humanness Is Not Always Positive: Automatic Associations between Incivilities and Human Symbols.

Uncivil behavior involves an attack on social norms related to the protection of public property and respect for community life. However, at the same time, the low-frequency and relatively low-intensity damage caused by most of these behaviors could lead to incivilities being considered a typically human action. The purpose of this set of studies is to examine the automatic associations that people establish between humanness and both civic and uncivil behaviors. Across three studies, uncivil behaviors were more strongly associated with human pictures than animal pictures (study 1) and with human-related words than animal-related words (study 2). We replicated study 2 with uncivil behaviors that do not prime graphically human beings (study 3). Overall, our results showed that uncivil behaviors and civic behaviors were clearly associated with human concepts. Our findings have direct implications for the conceptualization of humanness and its denial.

They do not suffer like us: the differential attribution of social pain as a dehumanization criterion in children / Ellos no sufren como nosotros: la atribución diferencial de dolor social como criterio de deshumanización en niños

BACKGROUND: Social pain is considered a feature of humanity. The goal of this study was to confirm whether children, like adults, dehumanise out-group members attributing them less capacity to experience social pain than to in-group members. METHODS: A total of 119 participants aged between 9 and 13 years responded to a questionnaire which collected information about situations that caused physical pain and situations that caused social pain. The task of the participants was to indicate to what extent they considered that two persons (a member of the in-group and a member of an out-group) would experience pain in each situation. RESULTS: The results indicated that there was a higher estimate of social pain suffered by in-group members. There were no significant differences in the case of situations that generated physical in the groups. CONCLUSIONS: The results were analysed from the dehumanisation perspective

ANTECEDENTES: se considera que la capacidad de experimentar dolor social es una característica exclusivamente humana. El objetivo de esta investigación es comprobar si los niños, al igual que los adultos, deshumanizan a los miembros de exogrupos atribuyéndoles menos capacidad de experimentar dolor social que a los miembros del endogrupo. MÉTODO: un total de 119 participantes de entre 9 y 13 años respondieron a un cuestionario en el que se recogían situaciones que causan dolor físico y situaciones que causan dolor de tipo social. La tarea de los participantes era indicar en qué medida consideraban que dos personas (un miembro del endogrupo y un miembro de un exogrupo) experimentarían dolor en cada una de las situaciones. RESULTADOS: los resultados indican que se produce una mayor estimación de dolor social en los miembros del endogrupo que en los miembros del exogrupo. En el caso de las situaciones que generan dolor físico no se encontraron diferencias significativas en función del grupo. CONCLUSIONES: los resultados se analizan desde la perspectiva de la deshumanización

They do not suffer like us: The differential attribution of social pain as a dehumanization criterion in children.

BACKGROUND: Social pain is considered a feature of humanity. The goal of this study was to confirm whether children, like adults, dehumanise out-group members attributing them less capacity to experience social pain than to in-group members. METHODS: A total of 119 participants aged between 9 and 13 years responded to a questionnaire which collected information about situations that caused physical pain and situations that caused social pain. The task of the participants was to indicate to what extent they considered that two persons (a member of the in-group and a member of an out-group) would experience pain in each situation. RESULTS: The results indicated that there was a higher estimate of social pain suffered by in-group members. There were no significant differences in the case of situations that generated physical in the groups. CONCLUSIONS: The results were analysed from the dehumanisation perspective.

Intergroup trust and anxiety: The two sides of stigma towards people with Down syndrome / Confianza y ansiedad intergrupal: los dos lados del estigma hacia las personas con síndrome de Down

People with Down syndrome experience a type of ambivalent stigmatisation, which combines stereotypes, emotional reactions, and both positive and negative attitudes. The aim of this study is to analyse the relationship between ambivalent attitudes towards people with Down syndrome, and the levels of intergroup trust and anxiety felt towards them. A total of 144 university students completed a questionnaire on their social perception of people with Down syndrome, indicating the extent to which they anticipate an interaction with this group based on trust or anxiety. The results show that responses to people with Down syndrome are ambivalent. Moreover, while intergroup trust is associated with high levels of admiration and competence, intergroup anxiety is associated with high levels of aversion, compassion and low admiration. We discuss the implications of these results, taking into account how to enhance the social perception of people with Down syndrome, as well as the complex role of compassion in the assessment of stigmatised groups (AU)

Las personas con síndrome de Down sufren un tipo de estigmatización ambivalente, que combina estereotipos, reacciones emocionales y actitudes positivas y negativas. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar la relación que existe entre las actitudes ambivalentes hacia las personas con síndrome de Down, y los niveles de confianza y ansiedad intergrupal que se mantienen hacia ellas. Un total de 144 estudiantes universitarios respondieron a un cuestionario sobre la percepción social que mantienen hacia este colectivo, e indicaron en qué medida anticipan una interacción con personas con síndrome de Down basada en la confianza o en ansiedad intergrupal. Los resultados indican que se producen respuestas ambivalentes hacia las personas con síndrome de Down. Además, mientras que la confianza intergrupal está relacionada con altos niveles de admiración y competencia, la ansiedad intergrupal está relacionada con niveles altos de aversión, compasión y baja admiración. Se discuten las implicaciones de estos resultados alcanzados de cara a mejorar la percepción social de las personas con síndrome de Down, así como el complejo papel que juega la compasión en la valoración de grupos estigmatizados (AU)

Do they feel the same as us? The infrahumanization of individuals with Down síndrome / ¿Sienten como nosotros? La infrahumanización de las personas con síndrome de Down

BACKGROUND: Research on infrahumanization shows there is a strong tendency to deprive outgroups of the ability to experience secondary emotions when compared to ingroups. However, it is not known whether this tendency is also applied to social groups towards which ambivalent attitudes are held, such as individuals with Down syndrome. METHODS: In the first study, participants were asked to attribute primary and secondary emotions to members of the ingroup (students) and outgroup (individuals with Down syndrome). The second study explored the effect of the physical features of Down syndrome on the differential association of emotions. A lexical decision task preceded by photographs of three face types (adults with Down syndrome, adults with ambiguous faces and adults without Down syndrome) was used for that purpose. RESULTS: The results showed a higher attribution of secondary emotions to members of the ingroup than to members of the outgroup. Also revealed that participants associated secondary emotions with the faces of adults without Down syndrome and with ambiguous faces far more quickly than with faces of individuals with Down syndrome. CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm the existence of infrahumanization bias and the effect of visibility of the stigma in this subtle type of prejudice

ANTECEDENTES: las investigaciones sobre infrahumanización muestran que hay una fuerte inclinación a privar a los exogrupos de la capacidad de experimentar emociones secundarias, en comparación con los endogrupos. Sin embargo, desconocemos si esta tendencia se aplica a grupos sociales hacia los que se mantienen actitudes ambivalentes, como las personas con síndrome de Down. MÉTODO: en el primer estudio se pidió a los participantes que atribuyeran emociones primarias y secundarias a los miembros del endogrupo (estudiantes) y del exogrupo (personas con síndrome de Down). El segundo estudio exploró el efecto que tenían los rasgos físicos de síndrome de Down en la asociación diferencial de emociones. Se empleó una tarea de decisión léxica precedida por fotografías de tres tipos de rostros (adultos con síndrome de Down, adultos con caras ambiguas y adultos sin síndrome de Down).RESULTADOS: se produjo una mayor atribución de emociones secundarias a los miembros del endogrupo que del exogrupo. Los participantes asociaron con mayor rapidez emociones secundarias a caras de adultos sin síndrome de Down y a caras ambiguas, en comparación con las caras de personas con síndrome de Down. CONCLUSIONES: estos resultados confirman la existencia del sesgo de infrahumanización y el papel de la visibilidad del estigma

Do they feel the same as us? The infrahumanization of individuals with Down syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Research on infrahumanization shows there is a strong tendency to deprive outgroups of the ability to experience secondary emotions when compared to ingroups. However, it is not known whether this tendency is also applied to social groups towards which ambivalent attitudes are held, such as individuals with Down syndrome. METHODS: In the first study, participants were asked to attribute primary and secondary emotions to members of the ingroup (students) and outgroup (individuals with Down syndrome). The second study explored the effect of the physical features of Down syndrome on the differential association of emotions. A lexical decision task preceded by photographs of three face types (adults with Down syndrome, adults with ambiguous faces and adults without Down syndrome) was used for that purpose. RESULTS: The results showed a higher attribution of secondary emotions to members of the ingroup than to members of the outgroup. Also revealed that participants associated secondary emotions with the faces of adults without Down syndrome and with ambiguous faces far more quickly than with faces of individuals with Down syndrome. CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm the existence of infrahumanization bias and the effect of visibility of the stigma in this subtle type of prejudice.

Infrahumanization in children: An evaluation of 70 terms relating to humanity / Infrahumanización en niños: evaluación de 70 términos relacionados con humanidad

BACKGROUND: Research on infrahumanization has revealed that individuals attribute more secondary emotions to the in-group than to the out-group, whose capacity to experience them is denied or restricted. When this bias has been examined in children, researchers have used the same taxonomy of affective terms as that used with adults. The aim of this research is to conduct a normative study that will equip researchers with a taxonomy of humanity attributed to emotional terms specifically for children. METHODS: Three hundred and sixty-three children aged between 11 and 12 responded to several questionnaires containing a total of 70 emotional terms, evaluated in eight dimensions associated with the perception of humanity. RESULTS: Principal component analysis shows that children categorize implicit dimensions associated with humanity differently to adults. CONCLUSIONS: This normative study enables the selection of graded emotional terms in humanity perceived by a child sample, in order to overcome current limitations in research on infrahumanization in children

ANTECEDENTES: las investigaciones sobre la infrahumanización han revelado que las personas atribuyen más sentimientos al endogrupo que al exogrupo, al que niegan o restringen la capacidad para experimentarlos. Cuando se ha investigado este sesgo en niños, los investigadores han utilizado la misma taxonomía de rasgos emocionales que con adultos. El objetivo de esta investigación es realizar un estudio normativo que permita a los investigadores tener una taxonomía de humanidad atribuida a los términos emocionales específica para niños. MÉTODO: 363 niños de entre 11 y 12 años respondieron diferentes cuestionarios relativos a un total de 70 términos emocionales, evaluados en ocho dimensiones relacionadas con la percepción de humanidad. RESULTADOS: el análisis de componentes principales muestra que los niños agrupan las dimensiones implícitas asociadas a humanidad de modo diferente a los adultos. CONCLUSIONES: este estudio normativo permite seleccionar términos emocionales graduados en humanidad percibida por una muestra infantil, con el fin de superar las limitaciones encontradas hasta el momento en la investigación sobre infrahumanización en niños

Infrahumanization in children: An evaluation of 70 terms relating to humanity.

BACKGROUND: Research on infrahumanization has revealed that individuals attribute more secondary emotions to the in-group than to the out-group, whose capacity to experience them is denied or restricted. When this bias has been examined in children, researchers have used the same taxonomy of affective terms as that used with adults. The aim of this research is to conduct a normative study that will equip researchers with a taxonomy of humanity attributed to emotional terms specifically for children. METHODS: Three hundred and sixty-three children aged between 11 and 12 responded to several questionnaires containing a total of 70 emotional terms, evaluated in eight dimensions associated with the perception of humanity. RESULTS: Principal component analysis shows that children categorize implicit dimensions associated with humanity differently to adults. CONCLUSIONS: This normative study enables the selection of graded emotional terms in humanity perceived by a child sample, in order to overcome current limitations in research on infrahumanization in children.

Normative data for 148 Spanish emotional words in terms of attributions of humanity / Datos normativos de 148 términos afectivos en dimensiones relacionadas con la atribución de humanidad

Research on outgroup infrahumanization is based on the subtle and not deliberate distinction of secondary emotions, an exclusively human emotion, and primary emotions, which are shared by animals and human beings. According to prior studies, people attribute more secondary emotions to the ingroup than to the outgroup which they deny or restrict the ability to experience them. This study presents normative measures for 148 emotional words viewed by Spanish people in seven dimensions related to humanity assessments. Two factors were revealed by the principal components analysis (PCA). The first component was loaded on dimensions that differentiate the emotions depending on the cognitive demands (cognition, moral quality and duration) whereas the second one was loaded on their expressive profile (visibility, age at which they are acquired, universality and causal locus). These dimensions were analyzed in relation to desirability, familiarity and explicit humanity

Las investigaciones sobre la infrahumanización del exogrupo se apoyan en la distinción sutil y no deliberada que existe entre los sentimientos, una emoción exclusivamente humana, y las emociones, que son compartidas por animales y humanos. De acuerdo con esos estudios, las personas atribuyen más sentimientos al endogrupo que al exogrupo al que niegan o restringen la capacidad para experimentarlos. Este estudio presenta los datos normativos relativos a 148 términos afectivos en siete dimensiones relacionadas con las evaluaciones de humanidad. El Análisis de Componentes Principales calculado sobre las respuestas dio lugar a dos factores. El primero agrupó las dimensiones que diferencian los términos afectivos en función de las demandas cognitivas requeridas (cognición, naturaleza moral y duración), mientras que el segundo las diferenció en función de su perfil expresivo (visibilidad, edad a la que se adquiere, universalidad y foco causal). Estas dimensiones se analizaron en relación a la valencia, la familiaridad y la humanidad explicita

The impact of helping behavior on outgroup infrahumanization.

Infrahumanization research has verified that in intergroup contexts, there is a strong tendency to attribute secondary emotions, which are uniquely human, to the ingroup, while limiting that attribution in outgroups. Experiments have shown it to be as common as ingroup bias. However, it is not yet known what characteristics may mitigate this trend. This paper presents two studies. The first analyzes the impact of helping behavior on attributions of human traits to two fictitious groups. The second study's objective was to determine if members of the Spanish ingroup would infrahumanize an Ethiopian outgroup less when that outgroup performs prosocial behavior towards another group. Infrahumanization was determined by a lexical decision task, using the names of ingroup and outgroup members as priming. The results demonstrate that describing a fictitious group in altruistic terms increases their human profile (experiment one) and reduces infrahumanization (experiment two).

The impact of helping behavior on outgroup infrahumanization

Infrahumanization research has verified that in intergroup contexts, there is a strong tendency to attribute secondary emotions, which are uniquely human, to the ingroup, while limiting that attribution in outgroups. Experiments have shown it to be as common as ingroup bias. However, it is not yet known what characteristics may mitigate this trend. This paper presents two studies. The first analyzes the impact of helping behavior on attributions of human traits to two fictitious groups. The second study’s objective was to determine if members of the Spanish ingroup would infrahumanize an Ethiopian outgroup less when that outgroup performs prosocial behavior towards another group. Infrahumanization was determined by a lexical decision task, using the names of ingroup and outgroup members as priming. The results demonstrate that describing a fictitious group in altruistic terms increases their human profile (experiment one) and reduces infrahumanization (experiment two) (AU)

Los estudios sobre infrahumanización han confirmado que hay una sólida tendencia en los escenarios intergrupales a atribuir al endogrupo la capacidad de experimentar sentimientos, una emoción exclusivamente humana, a la vez que se restringe esa posibilidad a los exogrupos. Aunque se trata de un fenómeno tan común como el favoritismo endogrupal, aún se sabe muy poco sobre las características que pueden atenuar esta tendencia. En este artículo se presentan dos investigaciones. En la primera se estudia el impacto de la conducta de ayuda en la atribución de rasgos humanos a dos grupos ficticios. El objetivo de la segunda fue determinar si hay una menor infrahumanización del exogrupo etíope, frente al endogrupo españoles cuando aquel lleva a cabo una conducta prosocial respecto a otro grupo. La infrahumanización se determinó mediante una tarea de decisión léxica empleando como priming nombres de miembros del endogrupo y del exogrupo. Los resultados muestran que describir en términos altruistas a un grupo ficticio incrementa su perfil humano (experimento uno) y reduce su infrahumanización (experimento dos) (AU)

Terroristas y víctimas. La infrahumanización de los marroquíes después del 11-M / Terrorists and victims. Infrahumanization of Moroccans after 11-M

Los estudios sobre infrahumanización verifican que las personas atribuyen más sentimientos al endogrupo que al exogrupo. Sin embargo, aún sabemos poco sobre el efecto de distintos contextos intergrupales en este sesgo. El objetivo principal de este estudio fue comprobar la naturaleza cambiante de la infrahumanización del exogrupo marroquíes inmediatamente después de los atentados del 11-M y siete años más tarde. Para ello, se analizaron las variaciones en la atribución de cualidades esenciales humanas, los sentimientos, a los marroquíes tras activar dos escenarios opuestos: culpables del acto terrorista del 11-M o víctimas del mismo atentado. Los resultados muestran que el grado de infrahumanización de los marroquíes en el contexto de perpetradores no varía significativamente respecto al grupo control. En cambio, no se produce infrahumanización cuando se les asocia a un contexto de víctimas aunque solo inmediatamente después del atentado, ya que siete años después este efecto desaparece (AU)

Infrahumanization studies have verified that most people attribute more secondary emotions to the ingroup than to the outgroup. However, these results may vary with changing contexts. The main objective of this study was to investigate the infrahumanization of Moroccans, depending on the context, after the 11-M attacks and seven years later. For this purpose, variations that occur in the allocation of essential human qualities -secondary emotions- were analyzed by activating images of outgroup members in two opposite contexts: Guilty of the terrorist attack or its victim. The results show that the infrahumanization of the Moroccans in the perpetrator context does not change significantly with regard to the control group. However, infrahumanization does not take place when Moroccans are associated with a victim context, though only immediately after the terrorist attack, because seven years later, this effect disappears (AU)

Satisfacción del paciente en una Unidad de Diálisis. ¿Qué factores modulan la satisfacción del paciente en diálisis? / Patient satisfaction in a dialysis unit: what factors influence patient satisfaction in dialysis?

Introducción. La enfermedad renal requiere una atención sanitaria prolongada, en la que se conjugan tanto la competencia profesional como otras habilidades tanto emocionales como psicosociales. En dichos procesos crónicos, el usuario se convierte en el "centro del sistema", necesitando profesionales capaces de atenderles de una manera multidisciplinar. En este contexto, las políticas sanitarias no pueden desarrollarse sin tener en cuenta la opinión del paciente que supondrá un valor añadido para la percepción de su salud o bienestar. Objetivo. Conocer el grado de satisfacción de los pacientes con enfermedad renal crónica en hemodiálisis. En segundo lugar, conocer las variables que se asocian al aumento o disminución de la satisfacción de los pacientes en las unidades de diálisis. Material y Método. Participaron en la investigación 187 pacientes. La media de edad fue de 66 años. Utilizamos el cuestionario SERVQHOS modificado. Resultados. Los niveles de satisfacción fueron altos y similares a los de otras unidades en España. Los aspectos peor valorados por nuestros pacientes eran el "tiempo de espera", "el servicio de ambulancias" y la "calidad de la comida". Factores como la edad, el tiempo en diálisis, el sexo y el turno de diálisis (turno de mañana o de tarde) modulan las puntuaciones en el cuestionario. Conclusiones. Identificar los factores que modulan la satisfacción es tan importante como evaluarla. Deben de tenerse en cuenta las variables inherentes del paciente, que están condicionando la satisfacción percibida (AU)

Introduction: Kidney disorders require prolonged medical treatment, in which professional competence is combined with other skills, both emotional and psychosocial. In these chronic processes, the user becomes the "centre of the system", needing professionals able to attend to them in a multidisciplinary way. In this context, health policy cannot work without taking into account the patient's opinion, which represents added value in terms of the perception of their health or well-being. Aim: To find out the degree of satisfaction among patients with chronic kidney disorders in haemodialysis. Secondly, to establish the variables associated with greater or lesser satisfaction on the part of patients in dialysis units. Material and Method: 187 patients took part in the research. Their average age was 66. We used a modified SERVQHOS questionnaire. Results: Satisfaction levels were high and similar to those in other units in Spain. The worst-rated aspects by these patients were "waiting time", "the ambulance service" and the "quality of the food". Factors such as age, time on dialysis, sex and dialysis shift (morning or afternoon shift) affect the ratings on the questionnaire. Conclusions: Identifying the factors affecting satisfaction is as important as assessing it. This must take into account the variables inherent to the patient which are influencing perceived satisfaction (AU)

[Terrorists and victims. Infrahumanization of Moroccans after 11-M]. / Terroristas y víctimas. La infrahumanización de los marroquíes después del 11-M.

Infrahumanization studies have verified that most people attribute more secondary emotions to the ingroup than to the outgroup. However, these results may vary with changing contexts. The main objective of this study was to investigate the infrahumanization of Moroccans, depending on the context, after the 11-M attacks and seven years later. For this purpose, variations that occur in the allocation of essential human qualities--secondary emotions--were analyzed by activating images of outgroup members in two opposite contexts: Guilty of the terrorist attack or its victim. The results show that the infrahumanization of the Moroccans in the perpetrator context does not change significantly with regard to the control group. However, infrahumanization does not take place when Moroccans are associated with a victim context, though only immediately after the terrorist attack, because seven years later, this effect disappears.

La infrahumanización de exogrupos en el mundo. El papel de la similitud, la amistad intergrupal, el conocimiento del exogrupo y el estatus / Infra-humanization of outgroups throughout the world. The role of similarity, intergroup friendship, knowledge of the outgroup, and status

Estudios sobre infrahumanización han confirmado que existe una mayor atribución de sentimientos al endogrupo que al exogrupo independientemente de la valencia de estas emociones. Sin embargo, las variables que conducen a la elección de qué exogrupos pueden ser infrahumanizados han recibido escasa atención. A través de este estudio se pretende determinar algunas de las variables relevantes en el dominio intergrupal que puedan provocar este tipo de prejuicio. El efecto de la similitud, amistad intergrupal, conocimiento del exogrupo y estatus se analizan en relación con la humanización de exogrupos de todo el mundo. Los resultados verificaron que no todos los exogrupos son igualmente humanizados. Un segundo hallazgo reveló que la similitud entre los grupos, la amistad y el conocimiento de los exogrupos incrementa la atribución de sentimientos hacia estos, mientras que el estatus no está relacionado con la humanización del exogrupo (AU)

Studies on infra-humanization have confirmed a greater attribution of secondary emotions to the in-group than to out-groups, independently of the valence of these emotions. However, the variables leading to the choice of which out-groups are likely to be infra-humanized have received limited attention in the literature. This study is concerned with determining some of the relevant variables within the intergroup domain that may elicit this type of prejudice. The roles of similarity, intergroup friendship, knowledge of the out-group, and status are analyzed with respect to the humanization of out-groups throughout the world. Results verify that not all out-groups are equally humanized. A second finding reveals that intergroup similarity, friendship, and knowledge of the out-groups increase the attribution of secondary emotions towards them, while status, as expected, is not related with out-group humanization (AU)

Limitaciones de la categorización cruzada con cruces atípicos: el efecto del estado afectivo / Crossed categorization restrictions with atypical crossing of categories: the affective state impact

Un aspecto que a penas se ha estudiado en categorización cru-zada, es la tipicidad resultante del cruce de categorías que se utiliza para conseguir la reducción del sesgo intergrupal. Eurich-Fulcer y Schofield (1995) han encontrado a este respecto que, cuando se cruzan categorías correlacionadas entre sí (cruces categoriales típicos), el sesgo intergrupal aumenta en lugar de disminuir. En el presente trabajo estudiamos las consecuencias de los afectos que pueden surgir ante los cruces categoriales atípicos. Basándonos en los trabajos de Forgas (1992), predecimos que el afecto va a influir más en la formación de impresiones sobre sujetos con cruces categoriales atípicos que sobre sujetos con cruces categoriales típicos. Los resultados lo confirman. Esto puede suponer un problema en el empleo de la categorización cruzada para la mejora de las relaciones intergrupales, puesto que el afecto generado, precisamente, ante personas pertenecientes a exogrupos desconocidos, extraños, suele ser negativo, de forma que, la utilización de cruces categoriales que resulten atípicos puede favorecer la elaboración de impresiones también negativas

An aspect that has hardly ever been considered in crossed categorization is the crossing typicality used to obtain the intergroup bias reduction. With regard to this subject, Eurich-Fulcer y Schofield (1995) have found that when correlated categories are crossed (typical crossing of categories), intergroup bias increases, instead of decreasing. The consequences of the affect that can arise in the face of the atypical crossing of categories are analysed in this study. Based on Forgas studies (1992), we predict that affect is going to influence the impression formation about subjects with atypical crossing of categories more than about subjects with typical crossing of categories. Results confirm our predictions. This effect can involve a problem in the use of crossed categorization for the intergroup relations improvement. Since the affect generated by persons belonging to unknown or strange outgroups is normally negative, atypical crossing of categories can also promote the production of negative impressions